Rabbi Dr. Dovid Gottlieb

Sunday, May 25, 2025

The great lie - 2% difference between human and chimp genes

Fact Check: New “Complete” Chimp Genome Shows 14.9 Percent Difference from Human Genome

May 21, 2025, 6:20 AM

https://evolutionnews.org/2025/05/fact-check-new-complete-chimp-genome-shows-14-9-percent-difference-from-human-genome/

A groundbreaking paper in Nature reports the “Complete sequencing of ape genomes,” including the genomes for chimpanzees, bonobos, gorillas, Bornean orangutans, Sumatran orangutans, and siamangs. I noted this in an article here yesterday, reporting that an evolutionary icon — the famous “1 percent difference” between the human and chimp genomes, touted across the breadth of popular and other scientific writing and teaching — has fallen. The researchers, for whatever reason — I’m not a mind reader — chose to bury that remarkable finding in technical jargon in their Supplementary Data section. Now for more on the scientific details.

You might be thinking, “Hey, weren’t these genomes sequenced long ago?” The answer is yes but also no. Yes, we had sequenced genomes from these species in the past, but, as the paper explains, “owing to the repetitive nature of ape genomes, complete assemblies have not been achieved. Current references lack sequence resolution of some of the most dynamic genomic regions, including regions corresponding to lineage-specific gene families.”

Or, as an accompanying explainer article puts it:

In the past, scientists had deciphered segments of non-human apes’ genomes, but they had never managed to assemble a complete sequence for any species. In the current study, however, [Kateryna] Makova and her collaborators used advanced sequencing techniques and algorithms that allowed them to read long segments of DNA and assemble them into a sequence that stretched from one end of each chromosome to the other, without any gaps. “This has never been done before,” says Makova.

In other words, the complete ape genomes were never fully sequenced. And they used the human genome as a reference sequence, which made the ape genomes look more human-like than they actually were.

You Don’t Believe Me?

From the technical paper:

Most previous genome-wide comparative studies of apes have been limited by the mapping of inferior assemblies to a higher quality human genome. Consequently, human reference biases were introduced.

This is consistent with what the National Center for Biotechnology Information said in 2007 about an early draft of the chimp genome:

Contigs were assembled using the human genome as a guide, and are therefore “humanized” in their construction. This is an important distinction, as some sequences, such as insertions, deletions, and gene duplications, may not be accurately represented by the current chimpanzee assembly.

Thus, up until now, most versions of the chimp and other ape genomes were effectively “humanized” because they were “assembled using the human genome as a guide.” This effectively makes them appear more similar to the human genome than they truly are. Can these new drafts of ape genomes help fix the problem?

Problem Solved?

Another explainer article in Nature seems to suggest that these “complete” drafts of the ape genomes will prove that they are less similar to the human genome than has been claimed:

Shortly after the first human genome sequence was finalized in 2003, a chimpanzee assembly was released. This was followed by assemblies for other great apes, such as the gorilla, Sumatran orangutan and bonobo, and small apes that are less closely related to humans than are great apes. These genomes offered a valuable opportunity to catalogue the genetic differences that have accumulated during the evolution of apes, including changes that are unique to humans. But, because these initial releases were incomplete drafts, comparisons could be made only between properly resolved portions of the genome. These studies therefore focused only on relatively small differences, and excluded extremely repetitive sequences and large-scale structural differences, such as inversions and duplications of genomic sequences. [Emphasis added.]

That last sentence seems to hint that previous comparisons between human and ape genomes “only focused on relatively small differences” and “excluded” the sections that entail “large-scale structural differences.” The explainer article notes that this study has “fully sequenced the genomes of six living ape species, enabling long-awaited comparisons of hard-to-assemble genomic regions.” Thus, one could expect that these newly “complete” ape genomes would reveal much greater differences compared to the human genome.

The New Ape Genomes and the Human Genome

What’s odd is that as one reads the technical paper, a direct comparison between the ape and the human genomes is hard to find. This passage seems to be as close as it gets:

Overall, sequence comparisons among the complete ape genomes revealed greater divergence than previously estimated (Supplementary Notes III–IV). Indeed, 12.5–27.3% of an ape genome failed to align or was inconsistent with a simple one-to-one alignment, thereby introducing gaps.

What exactly does this mean? Well, first they admit that “sequence comparisons among the complete ape genomes revealed greater divergence than previously estimated.” But the technical Nature paper considers human beings to be an “ape,” so implicit in this statement is their belief that comparing “ape genomes” includes comparisons between human and ape (i.e., non-human hominoid) genomes. So for the rest of this article, I’ll call humans “humans” and I’ll refer to non-human hominoids as “apes,” just like most normal people do.

Interestingly, two preprints of the paper (v1 and v2) published last year on BioRxiv (which are presumably the versions of the manuscript submitted to Nature initially and after one round of revisions) preface this result with these two sentences:

The oft-quoted statistic of ∼99% sequence identity between chimpanzee and human holds for most of the genome when considering single-nucleotide variants (SNVs). However, comparisons of T2T genomes suggest a much more nuanced estimate.

T2T means examining “telomere to telomere” — i.e., examining the entire chromosomes throughout the genome. These sentences were evidently removed during revisions for the published version in Nature — an interesting editorial decision. So what is the paper saying about the difference between humans and chimpanzees?

As we’ll see, the statement above — that “sequence comparisons among the complete ape genomes revealed greater divergence than previously estimated” — is true. But it doesn’t reveal the extent of the differences between human and ape genomes that this study uncovered. So let me cut to the chase:

Look back at those numbers, “12.5–27.3%.” The same numbers show up again buried deep in the Supplemental Data where they compare various ape to human genomes. They’re findable if you know where to look, but should I say “buried” — or “hidden”? From what I can tell, the Supplemental Data reports that the ape genome that is most similar to the human genome is the chimpanzee genome. And it shows a 12.5 percent “gap-divergence” — i.e., difference — from the human genome! And when you look at the “gap divergence” where the human genome is the target and the chimp is the query, the difference is 13.3 percent. Let me be clear: According to this study, the human and chimp genomes aren’t 98.8 percent the same (or 1.2 percent different) — as, for instance, the Smithsonian Institution’s National Museum of Natural History claims (see my “Visitor’s Guide” for more). In fact, they are no more than 87.5 percent similar — i.e., the human and chimp genomes are at least 12.5 percent different if not 13.3 percent different! In fact, the 13.3 percent difference is more relevant since this reflects how similar the whole human assembly is to the chimp genome.

What Exactly is the “Gap Divergence”

Before we go further, I want to explore exactly what the authors mean by “gap divergence” or “gap difference.” The paper defines the “gap divergence” as follows:

Gap divergence is defined as the fraction of positions in the target haplotype that are not aligned to the other haplotype, which could be due to biological processes (e.g., gene loss/gain and insertions/deletions), missing data, or technical problems (e.g., alignment failure due to SVs, repetitive elements, etc.).

So how do they determine the gap divergence? From what I can tell, it’s based upon dividing the target genome within the genome alignment into 1 million base pair (1 Mbp) segments and seeing how many of the bases within each 1 Mbp segment have no aligning base within the query genome that has been aligned to it. If the entire 1 Mbp segment has no alignment by the target genome, it has gap divergence of 100 percent. If 10,000 bp have no alignment, it has gap divergence of 1 percent; if 1,000 bp have no alignment, it has gap divergence of 0.1 percent, etc. According to the study’s results, the mean gap divergence in each 1 Mbp segment of the human genome (as target) aligned to the chimp genome (as query) is 12.5 percent. Thus, 12.5 percent of bases in the human genome have no aligning base in the chimpanzee genome within the whole genome-alignment.

The figure below — created for illustrative purposes and not from the study — helps show the differences between “SNVs” and “Gaps” between the two genomes:

As you can see, the Gaps represent nucleotides or segments of nucleotides that simply don’t exist in one genome or the other, while the SNVs represent nucleotides that do exist but are different. The two types of differences can be added up to calculate the total difference between the genomes.

An Upper Estimate

And why is there a range of 12.5 percent to 27.3 percent in the main text? That’s because the upper estimate of the non-alignability between the gorilla genome and human genome is a whopping 27.3 percent. In fact, if we look at the Supplementary Figure III.12, we find the following percentages of “gap-divergence” between various ape genomes when compared to the human genome (non-sex chromosomes):

Sumatran orangutan (Pongo abelii) vs human: 15.4 percent and 16.5 percent “gap-divergence” (i.e., minimum difference)
Gorilla (Gorilla gorilla) vs human: 17.9 percent and 27.3 percent “gap-divergence” (i.e., minimum difference)
Bonobo (Pan paniscus) vs human: 12.5 percent and 14.4 percent “gap-divergence” (i.e., minimum difference)
Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) vs human: 12.5 percent and 13.3 percent “gap-divergence” (i.e., minimum difference)

Do you see how easy it is to summarize that data? These are huge findings for both science and the wider culture, yet the technical Nature paper, and the two Nature explainer articles, failed to clearly bring out these points. They buried them in technical jargon and a lack of clarity deep in the Supplemental Data, and the sentence about “The oft-quoted statistic of ~99% sequence identity” was removed in the revisions of the paper. Nature, I feel confident in assuring you, is not a haphazardly edited journal. These were deliberate choices by someone during the editing process. The lack of clarity is simply incredible.

The Technical Details

Deep in the Supplementary Data we find Figure III.12 which explains the gap divergence between different species:

The caption reads: “Plots show 1 Mbp segments binned by gap divergence for each pairwise alignment,” where a pairwise alignment is an attempt to align two sequences to determine their degree of similarity or difference. Thus, we’re looking at a direct measure of the minimum degree of difference between the two genomes.

Adding in the Single Nucleotide Variation (SNV)

But there’s another type of variation between genomes also identified in the paper — single nucleotide differences (called “single nucleotide variations” or sometimes “short nucleotide variations” or SNVs). Again, buried in the Supplemental Data we find Figure III.11 which shows the percentage of SNVs between human and various ape genomes reported in this study. Here’s what they found:

Sumatran Orangutan (Pongo abelii) vs Human: ~3.6 percent different
Gorilla (Gorilla gorilla) vs Human: 1.9 percent – 2.0 percent different
Bonobo (Pan paniscus) vs Human: 1.5 percent – 1.6 percent different
Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) vs Human: 1.5 percent – 1.6 percent different

If we add the gap divergence to the SNV differences, we end up with these total degrees of difference between human and ape genomes:

Sumatran Orangutan (Pongo abelii) vs Human: ~19 percent – 20.1 percent different
Gorilla (Gorilla gorilla) vs Human: ~19.8 percent – 29.3 percent different
Bonobo (Pan paniscus) vs Human: ~14.0 percent – 16.0 percent different
Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) (target) vs. Human: ~14.0 percent different
Human (target) vs. Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes): ~14.9 percent different

So now what we’re seeing is that there is about a 14.9 percent total difference between the human genome and the chimp genome. That represents a much greater degree of difference than the often-claimed statistic that we are only 1 percent genetically different from chimpanzees!

Is This the Final Word?

Undoubtedly more analysis is needed to determine the extent to which nucleotides exhibit “one-to-one exact matches” between the human and chimp genomes, even in the regions that could be more easily aligned. So I suspect that the degree of difference between human and chimp genomes may go up in the future.

For now, we can safely say that this latest study shows that the human and chimp genomes are at least 14.9 percent different. This means that the human and chimp genomes are at least a full order of magnitude more dissimilar than the public is typically told.

Of course we’re talking here about the 44 non-sex chromosomes in the human genome. It’s also worth noting that compared to chimps, the human Y chromosome has a whopping 56.6 percent gap divergence (and 3.9 percent SNV divergence), and the human X chromosome has 4.4 percent gap divergence (and 1.1 percent SNV divergence). But that too is all buried in the Supplemental Data.

These are all groundbreaking findings — and it’s a shame that Nature would not report the data clearly and would make all of this so hard to find — using jargon that most non-experts won’t understand. Why did they do this? It’s important to realize that publishing scientific papers can be a bit like sausage-making: it’s often messy, and the final form that you read usually represents compromise language that all of the authors, reviewers, and editors were willing to publish — and may not represent precisely how every author of a paper feels. So perhaps some authors of this study would have preferred to state the implications more plainly. But we can still ask, Why didn’t Nature state the results clearly and let the chips fall where they may?

I suspect that this radical finding has implications — not just for science, but also for human exceptionalism, for the reliability of heavily marketed talking points, and more — that people will be discussing for a long time. And perhaps for some in the worlds of science and science reporting, especially those who touted the now discredited figure about a mere 1 percent difference from chimps, those conversations may not be welcome.

Photo by Nathan Jacobson, © Discovery Institute (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Casey Luskin

_{Associate
Director and Senior Fellow, Center for Science and Culture}

Casey Luskin is a geologist and an attorney with graduate degrees in science and law, giving him expertise in both the scientific and legal dimensions of the debate over evolution. He earned his PhD in Geology from the University of Johannesburg, and BS and MS degrees in Earth Sciences from the University of California, San Diego, where he studied evolution extensively at both the graduate and undergraduate levels. His law degree is from the University of San Diego, where he focused his studies on First Amendment law, education law, and environmental law.

Wednesday, May 21, 2025

What Israel’s Enemies Don’t Want You to Know by Sara Rigler

Bs”d

What Israel’s Enemies Don’t Want You to Know

Archeology screams the truth about Jerusalem and Israel

Some twenty years ago I was walking from my home in the Jewish Quarter of Jerusalem’s Old City to pray at the Kotel (the Western Wall), Judaism’s second holiest site, second only to the Temple Mount itself that towers above it. On the steps to the Kotel Plaza, I passed an Arab tour guide speaking in English to a large group of European tourists. Pointing toward the Golden Dome and the Al Aqsa Mosque on the Temple Mount, he said, “The Jews claim that their two temples stood on this spot, but there is no proof whatsoever to that claim.”

I was stunned. No proof? The gigantic, distinctive “Herodian stones” of the Western Wall itself, the remnant of the retaining wall King Herod built around the mountain when he enlarged the Second Temple, starting in 20 BCE, were incontrovertible proof. And what about the numerous contemporary historical descriptions of the Temple, including historian Josephus Flavius’s eye-witness account of the Temple, written in the first century CE? Although an inveterate debater, I stood there unable to utter a word of rebuttal because I was shocked speechless by the boldfaced lie. It was as if an acknowledged scientist was telling his students that the world is flat.

Only recently, when reading Doron Spielman’s new book, When the Stones Speak, did I become aware that that Arab tour guide was just a small part of a widespread, carefully calculated campaign to deny the Jewish People’s historical claim to Jerusalem and the land of Israel.

The invective, “Colonialists!” being shouted against the Jewish State on university campuses and in European capitals is based on the allegation that European Jews came to Palestine in the late 19^th and early 20^th century as foreign occupiers. In the wake of the Holocaust, according to this view, the United Nations voted for a Jewish state, alongside an Arab state, in the small piece of land between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River, in order to assuage their guilt. The implication of “colonialists” is that Jews have no more rights to that patch of land than the British had to India.

An inconvenient contradiction of that narrative is the Bible, which chronicles over a thousand years of Jews (then called “Israelites”) living in that patch of land. “The Bible should be put aside,” claimed Palestinian archaeologist, Hani Nur el-Din, professor of archaeology at Al-Quds University. “It’s not a history book.”

This statement, writes Doron Spielman, “was part of the broader, long-standing trend of denying Jewish history in Jerusalem that had persisted for decades.” In When the Stones Speak, he provides hair-raising evidence of this campaign.

(Even the name “Palestine” was an effort by the Roman Emperor Hadrian, after the Jewish revolt of 132-135 CE, to sever the historical identification between the Jews and their land, which had been called “Judea” for centuries. The term “Palestina” derives from the Philistines, one of the ancient Sea Peoples who had lived along the coast of Judea and disappeared from history with the Babylonian conquest seven centuries before the Romans exiled the Jews.)

If you can’t trust the Bible to legitimate the Jewish people’s historical claim to the land, then perhaps archeological discoveries in the City of David, the original Jerusalem which lies to the south of the walled Old City, can provide proof that Jews lived there in antiquity. When the Stones Speak is the riveting story of those archeological digs and what they revealed, as well as the opposition that tried to stop them.

THE CRUSADE TO DENY HISTORY

Excavating the City of David faced massive pushback from the Palestinian leadership and the European NGOs that support them. Sheikh Ikrima Sabri, the Mufti of the Temple Mount and one of the founders of Al Quds University, told a reporter for the German Die Welt in 2001, “There is not the smallest indication of the existence of a Jewish temple on this place in the past. In the whole city, there is not even a single stone indicating Jewish history…. It is the art of the Jews to deceive the world.”

Walid Awad, a Palestinian scholar in charge of publications for the Palestinian Ministry of Information, asserted in 1996: “The fact of the matter is that almost thirty years of excavations did not reveal anything Jewish. ... Jerusalem is not a Jewish city, despite the biblical myth implanted in some minds.”

Even as recently as May, 2023, Mahmoud Abbas, the President of the Palestinian Authority, addressing the United Nations, claimed that there was no proof whatsoever of Jewish ties to the al-Aqsa compound [the Temple Mount]. He stated that Israel “dug under al-Aqsa. They dug everywhere and they could not find anything.”

When the Stones Speak tells of astonishing finds in the City of David that disprove the Palestinian lies. Dr. Eilat Mazar, a courageous and independent archeologist, using the Bible as her guide, discovered a monumental building, with walls twenty feet thick, which she maintained was the palace of King David and subsequent kings of Judea. She dated pottery she found within the ruins to the tenth century BCE, the time of King David.

Archeologists from Tel Aviv University, who had made a career of denying the Bible, jumped on Dr. Mazar and questioned the dating of her pottery shards. They argued that the massive building, clearly belonging to a ruler, was from two centuries before King David or three centuries after. In those years, only organic matter could be conclusively dated. An olive pit found deep in the structure was sent to the laboratories of Oxford University for Carbon-14 dating. After weeks of tumulteous debate in the media about Dr. Mazar's discovery, the results came back: the olive pit was from 1000 BCE, the period of King David.

Even more electrifying was her discovery of a clay seal that bore the name, written in paleo-Hebrew, of “Yehuchal the son of Shelemiah.” The Bible relates that the prophet Jeremiah, who lived in the 6th century BCE, prophesized that the mistreatment of orphans and widows would bring Divine judgment against the kingdom. Four of King Zedekiah’s officers told the king that Jeremiah was fomenting panic in Jerusalem. The Bible records the name of one of those officers: Yehuchal the son of Shelemiah.

THE PILGRIMAGE ROAD

Even more gripping is the story of discovering and excavating “the Pilgrimage Road,” a 700-meter series of expertly chisselled limestone steps that led from the Siloam Pool, a giant ritual bath discovered at the southern tip of the City of David, directly to the Temple Mount. As Doron Spielman writes:

The road we had discovered wasn’t just a Pilgrimage Road; it was the Hag Pilgrimage Road used by the ancient Israelites who came to Jeusalem more than sixteen hundred years before Islam was founded.

This historical fact should have posed no challenge to Islam were it not for the Palestinian leadership. But they had been teaching an entire generation of their people the falsehood that there never was a Jewish Temple on the Temple Mount, and that the site was first sanctified by Muhammed.

…

With the discovery of King David’s Palace and the Pilgrimage Road, the City of David was transformed from a small backwater excavation into a leading archaeological site.

And with that transfomation came threats of violence against Israelis in general and against our workers, and even an attempted assassination.

I never expected a book on archeology to be a page-turner, but Doron Spielman is a master story-teller. As Vice-president of the City of David for twenty years, he provides an eye-witness account of the drama and suspence of using archeology to prove that the Jews are the indigenous people of the tract of land between the Jordan River and the Mediterrean Sea. With a cast of colorful characters from Elie Weisel to Congresswoman Elise Stefanik, this is a must-read story.

As the author writes: “Grab almost any Israeli off the streets in Israel today and they will likely tell you: We are here. We have always been here. And we’re not going anywhere else.”

With the revelations narrated in this book, every Jew in the world should be able to vouch: The Jews have always been in the land of Israel. We are the indigenous people between the river and the sea.

To buy the book, click here:

https://www.amazon.com/When-Stones-Speak-Remarkable-Discovery/dp/1546009256

Wednesday, May 14, 2025

Short and sweet story failures of evolution to explain echo location in bats

https://evolutionnews.org/2025/05/lets-enter-bat-echolocation-evolution-in-google-scholar/

Friday, April 18, 2025

what happens to a flatworm when it is immersed in barium

ChatGPT said:

When a flatworm is immersed in barium, the outcome depends on the form of barium used. Barium in general is toxic to living organisms, but here's a breakdown:

1. Barium Ions (e.g., Barium Chloride - BaCl₂)

Toxicity: Highly toxic to flatworms and other invertebrates.
Effect: Disrupts normal nerve and muscle function by blocking potassium channels, which are crucial for nerve impulse transmission.
Result: The flatworm may experience:
- Loss of movement or erratic movement
- Muscle spasms or paralysis
- Death, depending on concentration and exposure time

2. Barium Sulfate (BaSO₄)

Insoluble & Inert: Commonly used in medical imaging (e.g., X-rays) because it doesn't dissolve in water.
Effect on Flatworms: Minimal, unless impurities are present—generally non-toxic due to poor solubility.

Summary

Soluble barium salts (like barium chloride): Harmful or lethal to flatworms.
Insoluble barium compounds (like barium sulfate): Generally harmless.

Do you know which form of barium you're referring to? I can give you more detailed effects if you do!

You said:

there is a report of the death of the head leaving the tail which revgererates a new head immune to barium poining in Seymour Garte, Perry Marshall, and Stuart Kauffman have published an article in the journal Entropy titled “The Reasonable Ineffectiveness of Mathematics in the Biological Sciences.”

ChatGPT said:

Yes, the phenomenon you've described has been documented in scientific research. When planarian flatworms are exposed to barium chloride (BaCl₂), a potent potassium channel blocker, their head tissues degenerate within approximately 72 hours. Remarkably, if these worms remain in the BaCl₂ environment, they can regenerate new heads that are resistant to the toxic effects of barium. PubMed+3PMC+3ResearchGate+3

This adaptation suggests that planarians possess a form of physiological plasticity, allowing them to modify their regenerative processes in response to environmental stressors. The regenerated heads not only restore normal morphology but also exhibit insensitivity to BaCl₂, indicating a successful adaptation to the previously harmful conditions.PMC

This case exemplifies how biological systems can sometimes defy straightforward mathematical modeling, as discussed in the article "The Reasonable Ineffectiveness of Mathematics in the Biological Sciences" by Seymour Garte, Perry Marshall, and Stuart Kauffman. The authors argue that the complexity and adaptability of living organisms often challenge the predictive power of mathematical frameworks traditionally used in the physical sciences.

ChatGPT said:

The phenomenon of planarian flatworms regenerating barium-insensitive heads after exposure to barium chloride (BaCl₂) has been documented in scientific literature. A key study titled "Regenerative Adaptation to Electrochemical Perturbation in Planaria: A Molecular Analysis of Physiological Plasticity" reports that exposure to BaCl₂ causes degeneration of the planarian head, but continued exposure leads to the regeneration of a new head that is insensitive to BaCl₂. ResearchGate+2PubMed+2PMC+2

This study provides a detailed analysis of the molecular and physiological mechanisms underlying this adaptation, including changes in ion channel expression and the role of specific molecular pathways. The findings suggest that planarians can adapt to electrochemical stress by altering their physiology during regeneration.

While this study is a primary source documenting this specific phenomenon, other research has explored related aspects of planarian regeneration and physiological adaptation. For example, studies have investigated the role of ion transport and membrane voltage in planarian head regeneration, highlighting the importance of bioelectric signals in regenerative processes. PMC+2Cell+2PubMed+2

These studies collectively contribute to our understanding of the remarkable regenerative capabilities of planarians and their ability to adapt to environmental stressors.